Thorn Queen Chapter Twenty-Two

I woke up with a headache even worse than the one I'd gotten shooting tequila on the night of Luisa's birth. Pain thudded to a steady drumbeat in my head, though at the same time, my senses felt foggy as a boring plaster ceiling slowly came into focus above me. Nausea welled up in my stomach, and I worried I was going to get sick. It had happened the last time I'd come crashing through the worlds. And speaking of the worlds†¦where was I? Easy enough to figure out, my groggy brain quickly realized. I'd been pulled out from the Otherworld, which meant I could either have been sent to the Underworld or the human world. The fact that I was still alive indicated I'd gone onto the latter. Why on earth would Abigail summon me to-fuck. There it was: the nausea again. I bit my lip and tried to sit up, not wanting to choke on my own vomit. Only, when I tried to rise, I didn't get very far. My hands were stretched above my head, tied to the headboard of the bed I lay on. No, not tied-cuffed. Cuffed with heavy steel, industrial-strength handcuffs. Bound or no, I did manage some semblance of sitting, just as my stomach betrayed me. A bowl got shoved under my face right at that moment, and I was grateful to spare the bedding and my clothes. I threw up twice before my benefactor gently asked, â€Å"Any more?† â€Å"I don't think so.† I squinted up and found myself looking into the face of a young girl, heavily freckled and brown-haired, with a nose a bit too small for the rest of her facial features. She was still cute enough, though, and-she was a gentry. For a moment, I wondered if I'd gotten confused about the banishment. Was I still in the Otherworld? No. This was definitely the human world. I could sense it. There was a way that magic hung in the air-or, rather, didn't hang in the air around here. The girl took the bowl away and returned with a damp cloth. She wiped my face with it and then my mouth. A moment later, she returned with a glass of water, which I drank gratefully. All of her movements were gentle and graceful. â€Å"What's your name?† I asked. â€Å"Cariena.† â€Å"That's really pretty. Where am I, Cariena?† I asked, tugging at the handcuffs. Those things weren't going to budge. The girl sat down on a chair in the corner. â€Å"In the world of the humans.† â€Å"I know that.† I tried hard not to let my tone get harsh. My leather from the fight was gone; I wore a T-shirt and underwear. â€Å"But where? What is this place?† She glanced around, as though the room might offer some secret insight. The walls were painted pale gray and matched the bedspread, a pattern of purple and grayish blue flowers. There was a small dresser in the corner, along with her chair, as well as the narrow twin bed I lay in. There wasn't a lot of space here-and no windows at all. â€Å"The Red Snake Man's house.† â€Å"The Red Snake-son of a bitch. Art.† My mind was still fuzzy, and I had a hard time grasping all the details of what had happened. I remembered bits and pieces of the fight. I remembered chasing the soldier and then Abigail banishing me†¦ But it was all still disjointed, and I had no recollection of how I'd gotten here. It was possible that was simply from the trauma of tearing through the worlds. Someone could have smacked me upside the head too, but the pain throbbing in my skull wasn't that type. As I'd noted earlier, it was more like the hangover type. Only worse. â€Å"Where is he now?† I asked. Cariena shook her head. â€Å"I don't know. He doesn't explain his activities to us.† â€Å"Us? Are there†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Again, my addled brain tried to remember what I already knew. Why couldn't I line up my thoughts? It was like I had both the buzz and the hangover from drinking, all wrapped up into one. Us. Art. Red Snake Man. â€Å"Are there†¦others like you here? Other girls?† She nodded. â€Å"How many?† â€Å"Five-no, four. They took Fara yesterday. Isanna's next.† â€Å"They who?† â€Å"One of the men. They come sometimes. They look at us. Sometimes they just†¦Ã¢â‚¬  She looked away, unwilling to meet my eyes. â€Å"Sometimes they just†¦visit. But sometimes they make a deal with the Red Snake Man to take one of us.† â€Å"Art,† I murmured. â€Å"His name is Art. Red Snake Man seems to give him some semblance of respect.† I started to rub my eyes and then realized I couldn't with the cuffs. â€Å"Are the other girls chained up too?† â€Å"Only the ones who resist.† â€Å"Well, yeah, I guess that would include me. I take it you're not one?† â€Å"Not anymore.† â€Å"Why don't you leave? You must have some magic†¦even a little.† Cariena held up her hands. She didn't have handcuffs like me, but snug iron bracelets hugged each wrist, each with a tiny lock. The skin was red and swollen where the iron touched. â€Å"Jesus†¦so you're blocked from your magic. But, I mean, can't you just walk out the door?† â€Å"There's iron†¦iron everywhere. The windows, the doors. They're all bound with iron and spells. And locks. Besides†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Her blue eyes widened slightly. â€Å"I don't know where I would go†¦not in this world†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"Home,† I said fiercely. â€Å"You'll go home. I'll take you there.† She shook her head, face sad. â€Å"There's no escape from here. Not even for you.† I eyed her curiously. â€Å"Do you know who I am?† â€Å"You are the Thorn Queen. Storm King's daughter. You are my sovereign.† She gave a deferential nod of respect. â€Å"And I know you are a great warrior and magic user. But if the Red Snake Man caught even you, then there's no hope for any of us. Moria tried to escape, and she died out there.† â€Å"Moria did escape. She didn't die, and-† I stopped. Why was my brain such mush? Why was I thinking so slowly? A great warrior and magic user. I didn't need my hands to get out of here. I had my magic. The iron and steel that stunted Cariena's magic had hardly any effect on me, and I would have had enough time by now to rebuild my stores of power. I reached into myself and then to the world around, seeking water and air, though not certain what I'd do with them. Blow the headboard apart? Oxidize the handcuffs? The decision turned out not to matter. Nothing happened. I felt nothing. I felt†¦well, human. I felt as I had for years, long before I'd had any clue I could touch any sort of Otherworldly magic. I was cut off. My mind touched only empty space. â€Å"What's wrong with me?† I asked, true panic starting to unravel in me. â€Å"My magic's gone. The steel shouldn't affect me†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"It's not the steel,† a voice suddenly said. â€Å"It's the nightshade. And I think you're overdue.† Art strolled into the room, looking as dashing as ever with his tanned skin and movie-star smile. I had nothing but contempt for him and instinctually tried to break the cuffs. Nightshade†¦nightshade. Where had I heard that before? Rurik, I realized. He'd advised something called a tincture of nightshade to completely cut off Jasmine from her magic. Was that what I'd been given? He'd said it was the most effective†¦but that it made those with human blood feel dazed and sick. All of a sudden, I knew this fuzzy hangover feeling didn't have anything to do with me being banished. There was no real purpose in discussing nightshade with Art, so I got right to the point. â€Å"I'm going to kill you.† Art laughed that hearty, deep laugh I'd once found endearing. â€Å"Forgive me if I'm not scared.† He turned to Cariena. â€Å"Go get some more nightshade for Eugenie. And make sure Isanna is dressed and ready to go when Abigail returns.† Cariena was practically out of the room before he finished speaking. â€Å"I can't believe it,† I said. â€Å"It's really true. When I first started putting together this fairy sex-trade theory, I thought it was as crazy as Roland thought it was. But it's really true. Where's this Isanna going? Is Abigail taking her to her new owner?† He leaned back and crossed his legs. â€Å"I suppose you could say that. I like to think of it as her new loving home. The man who bought her is very eager to welcome her.† â€Å"You're a fucking bastard,† I growled. â€Å"Selling them like they're property.† â€Å"Might as well be. And if it makes you feel better, I don't sell all of them. Cariena there†¦hmm, well, she's not pretty enough to get a good price. Easier to keep her around for house calls.† â€Å"House calls.† I started to feel sick again, and it had nothing to do with the nightshade. â€Å"Basically, you're whoring her out. You sell sex slaves and run a brothel-and yet, all the while, you play hero shaman like you're doing the world a good deed. Roland couldn't say enough nice things about you.† Art straightened up, feet hitting the floor as a flash of anger shone in his eyes. â€Å"I am doing the world a good deed-this world. Those girls? They're nothing. They aren't human. And you†¦Ã¢â‚¬  He shook his head. â€Å"You're one to talk about image. You play hero shaman too, when in reality you're off commanding gentry armies. Does Roland know? Does he know what you really are? I'm sure he has to know you're a half-breed mongrel, but does he really know the extent of it?† White-hot rage burned within the drug-induced haze of my mind. â€Å"I think you forgot the part where I'm going to kill you.† â€Å"And you forgot the part where I said I'm not worried.† Cariena returned holding a coffee mug. I eyed it warily. â€Å"What are you going to do with me?† I demanded. â€Å"You would have killed me already if you could, yet you probably aren't going to let me go now that I know your dirty secret. Are you going to sell me off too? Keep me for yourself since you don't like gentry?† Art shook his head and approached my bed. â€Å"Eugenie, you couldn't pay me enough to keep you around. I'd take one of these idiot girls any day. Turn on the microwave, and they're so scared that they'll stay docile for weeks.† He gestured Cariena to his side and reached down to hold my head in place. I realized what he was going to do and began thrashing. With one hand he tried to keep me still, and with the other he partially held my mouth open. â€Å"Do it,† he said. Obediently, Cariena poured the liquid from the mug into my half-open mouth. As she did, she mouthed, I'm sorry. The stuff tasted horrible, and I gagged on it. I tried to spit it out, but Art promptly covered my mouth until I had to swallow. That bitterness flowed down my throat, and I could feel a new wave of numbness start to sweep over me. â€Å"Yes,† said Art, almost cheerfully. â€Å"You're trouble. I don't want you. I don't know any human who would. But fortunately, we got an offer from someone who isn't.† I think he was smiling that stupid smile again, but I could never say for sure. The force of the nightshade flooded through me, pulling me into fuzziness, then darkness, and then sleep. I immediately noticed two things when I came to later. One was that Art was still in the room, though I think he'd just returned and hadn't been watching me sleep. The other thing I noticed was that I was uncuffed. I didn't waste any time. I promptly leapt out of the bed and charged him. Unfortunately, I didn't really make it off the bed so well. The nightshade was chugging along in my system, and my limbs barely had the energy to stay upright. I fell off the bed and collapsed into an ungraceful pile on the floor. Cariena was there too, holding a bundle of clothing, and started to come help me. Art shook his head, and she froze. â€Å"Looks like you won't be killing me today,† he said. â€Å"You fucking bastard,† I said, tossing one arm on the bed and attempting to pull myself up. â€Å"How long was I out?† â€Å"Oh, an hour or so. That's usually the worst part of it for humans. Now that you're bright-eyed and bushy-tailed, Cariena's going to help you look respectable.† I glared at him. I didn't know who'd stripped me down to this T-shirt and underwear, but if it had been him, he'd die extra slow. The scathing look he gave me suggested, however, that he found as little pleasure in me as I did in him. â€Å"You can't keep me here,† I warned, managing at last to sit back on the bed. â€Å"Someone's going to come looking for me.† â€Å"Who?† he asked. â€Å"You were the idiot who wandered off from your people. None of them saw you taken. None of them saw me or any of my companions-well, except for your two meager guards, and they won't say anything to anyone ever again.† With a sinking feeling, I knew he was right. Nobody knew what had happened to me. I'd mentioned the Yellow River theory off and on to a few of my friends, but none of them had any reason to suspect that was connected to my post-battle disappearance. If anything, they'd probably think there'd been another demon on the loose. â€Å"Who the hell were your companions anyway?† I demanded, recalling the trained fighters. â€Å"Did you hire a mercenary army or something?† Art only smiled. â€Å"Cariena, get her dressed.† To me, he said, â€Å"Cooperate, or she'll be the one who suffers for your disobedience.† He left, shutting the door behind him. I heard the snick of a lock. Across the room, Cariena watched me with big, terrified eyes. She feared both me and Art. I sighed. â€Å"It's okay. I'll get dressed. I don't want to run around in my underwear anyway.† Visibly relieved, she stepped forward and unfurled what she held: a dress. A gentry-style dress. â€Å"You have got to be kidding me,† I said. â€Å"Isn't there something else?† Cariena cringed. â€Å"It's all he gave me.† I eyed the bedspread, almost wondering if I could go all Scarlett O'Hara and make something for myself. Then, seeing Cariena's pale face, I yielded again. I wouldn't let Art beat her or give her to some guy because of me. I took the dress from her but discovered I couldn't put it on without help, not with my weak muscles and groggy motor control. Being in that state infuriated me. I hated being helpless. More upsetting still was that I was essentially free, unbound and able to move about†¦but I had no means to fight or defend myself. I could barely even stand. I was a prisoner in my own body. The dress was a mix of lavender and pale blue. I guess you'd call it periwinkle, which I'd always thought was a dorky name. It was made of smooth, clingy velvet that hugged my body and laced up the back corset-style. The sleeves were long and form-fitting, and the scoop neckline was much lower than my usual style. I'd only wear something that showed that much cleavage if I was going on a date with Kiyo-or trying to coax a favor from Dorian. Kiyo and Dorian. It sounded pathetic and all damsel-in-distress, but I would have given anything to have them here right now. Cariena clasped her hands and studied me almost adoringly. â€Å"You look beautiful, your majesty. I see now why you have so many suitors back in our world.† Our world. â€Å"Well, I don't think my beauty plays quite as much a role as you think.† She produced a brush and undid the knotted ponytail in my hair. â€Å"I don't know if I want to be beautiful or not. I used to think I did. But since I'm not, no one will take me from here.† She sounded grateful. â€Å"You are beautiful,† I said sharply, angry at what Art had said. â€Å"And someone is going to take you from here-me.† Cariena gave me a small, sad smile, but for the first time, I thought there might be something like hope in her eyes. A knock at the door startled her back into timid mode as she leapt up from where she'd sat beside me. â€Å"Oh! He's here.† â€Å"Who?† I asked. Surely Art wouldn't have knocked. The lock clicked, and the door opened. Leith walked in. â€Å"Leith!† I exclaimed. He looked as I'd seen him before, clad in a red and white silk shirt, dark hair glossy and swept from his face in a ponytail. I wanted to jump up but knew I'd fall to the floor again. â€Å"Thank God.† Someone did know I was here. I wasn't lost forever. I wanted to tell Cariena we were on the verge of freedom, but she was already scurrying out of the room and hastily shutting the door. â€Å"Eugenie,† breathed Leith, striding toward me. He knelt on the ground and caught hold of my hands where I sat. â€Å"You are stunning†¦as beautiful as I remember. No, more so. You can't imagine how I've missed you.† A chill crept along my spine. Something was very, very wrong here. â€Å"Leith†¦we have to get out of here. You have to help me-and these girls. There are horrible things going on here.† â€Å"We can leave,† he said. â€Å"But not quite yet. Not until everything's settled.† I tested his hand to see if I could free mine. I couldn't. â€Å"Until what's settled?† â€Å"Until then,† he continued, as though I hadn't spoken, â€Å"you'll have to stay here where no one can find you. But I promise I'll visit you every day.† â€Å"I can't stay here! I have to get back to†¦anywhere that's not here. Tucson. The Thorn Land. Anywhere! Leith, what the hell is going on? Why are you here?† â€Å"Because you are. Because Art got you for me.† That chill down my spine spread to the rest of my body until I felt cold all over. I tried jerking my hand away again but didn't possess the strength. â€Å"How do you know Art? Oh God. Please tell me you aren't working with him.† He shrugged. â€Å"It's a mutually beneficial relationship. I help him collect girls in our-in the Otherworld.† â€Å"Girls from my kingdom,† I said, the realization coming suddenly. â€Å"That's why none of yours were ever taken.† Leith had the grace to look sheepish. â€Å"I don't take important ones, Eugenie. Just peasants. No one notices they're missing.† â€Å"Their parents do.† â€Å"Look, it doesn't matter. My soldiers help round them up, and I bring them to Art and Abigail to do what it is they do.† My soldiers. The soldiers who always wore red, just like Leith did now. Normally, red shirts made me think of Star Trek extras, but in this case, it was in tribute to the Rowan Land's flag and emblem. The soldiers Jasmine and others had seen weren't Aeson's deserters. They'd been sent by Leith to help Art and Abigail with their abductions. â€Å"They sell them, Leith! How can you stand by and enable that? They sell those girls to horny guys against their will. What can you possibly get out of it to justify having that on your conscience?† â€Å"This.† He gestured around. â€Å"Art and Abigail share things with me†¦their knowledge from this world. I take it back to mine.† I stared in disbelief. â€Å"And then you pass it off as your own. That's why everyone thinks you're such a technological genius. Did you really devise those irrigation plans for me yourself?† â€Å"No,† he admitted. â€Å"I had help. But does it really matter? Look, you don't know what it's like. You're strong. Your magic grows more powerful every day. But me? I'm a joke. I can't inherit. Proving myself with my ‘genius' was the only way to get any respect†¦and even that wouldn't be good enough to let me inherit. Until I met you.† â€Å"Leith-â€Å" â€Å"I know what you said, but my feelings haven't changed. I love you. And I know if you just spend a little more time with me, you'll love me too. We connect. There's something between us. It's more than just about power.† I leaned back. It was the only way I could put distance between us. â€Å"I'm not so sure about that. You think I'm your meal ticket to holding on to the Rowan Land.† â€Å"Not just that land, but all the lands! This world too. Eugenie, when you bear my son, you'll see that I'm right.† There was a zealous glow in his eyes, and I couldn't decide if he was crazy or just really, really believed these things would be true if he said them. Maybe there wasn't a difference. â€Å"I can make you happy-and I know you can make me happy. You're so beautiful†¦.† He moved up to sit beside me on the bed and ran one hand along my velvet-covered leg. â€Å"Leith†¦don't†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"I just need to get you pregnant,† he said earnestly. â€Å"Don't you understand? If I bring you back to our world carrying my child, everything will be solved. Art told me†¦he told me how you stop yourself from conceiving. How you take some potion every day.† His hand moved up to my hip while his other touched my face and stroked my hair. I tried to back away, but his grip was too strong in my addled state. â€Å"He said if you're away from it long enough that you'll be able to have a baby†¦.† I swallowed. My heart was threatening to pound out of my chest. â€Å"No†¦it won't work. You can't get me pregnant-because I already am.† His caresses froze. â€Å"What?† â€Å"You were right before about me being involved with Dorian. Kiyo was a cover. He's not worthy-he's no one I'd want to father my child. Dorian and I have been lovers for a long time now in secret. We were afraid of what his enemies would do if they found out. I've been pregnant for†¦Ã¢â‚¬  What wouldn't show? â€Å"†¦two months. It's too late for you, Leith.† He had gone perfectly still, save for his eyes, which were searching my face thoroughly. â€Å"I don't believe you. You're lying. Everyone knows how you bicker with the Oak King. You aren't lovers.† â€Å"We are. He'll kill you when he finds out.† Leith shook his head and slid his hand from my hip to my stomach. â€Å"There's nothing here. Not yet.† Panic flooded me, and for a moment I couldn't breathe. Every other time I'd come close to being raped flashed through my mind-and there had been far more of those times than I would have liked. And every time, I had escaped the situation. Yet that never made the next time any less terrifying. This was no exception. â€Å"Leith, please don't do this.† His hand moved fumblingly to my breast, and then he pushed me back against the bed. â€Å"It's okay,† he said, speaking as one would to a child. â€Å"It'll be okay. You'll like it. I promise.† â€Å"Don't do this!† His mouth was on my neck, and lovesick boy or no, there was definitely a man's sexual need there. I struggled against him, trying desperately to free myself, but I might as well have truly been a child. With that fucking drug in me, both my body and brain were a mess. My body had none of its ability to fight him or stop him from pushing up my skirt. My brain had no clever ways to talk him out of this. And as he took off his own clothes and laid his body on top of mine, pressing me down, I realized he needed no handcuffs to keep me subdued. The strength of his hands pinning my wrists was more than enough.

Economics IA Commentary †Market Failure Essay

Household energy bills will increase by à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½50 as the impact of green taxes triples over a decade, new research shows. By James Kirkup, Political Correspondent, Published: 12:01AM BST 17 Aug 2010 The sum the Government levies from energy use will rise to more than à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½16 billion by 2020, a think tank has estimated. Policy Exchange, which has close links to Conservative ministers, calculated that the cost of green taxes, surcharges and other levies on energy will go from à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½5.7 billion this year to à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½16.3 billion in 2020. In 2020, some à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½6.4 billion of the total will come from levies applied to domestic energy consumption. That is up from à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2 billion today. The increase will add à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½40 to the average household gas bill and à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½8 to an electricity bill, according to data from the Department of Energy and Climate Change. Household energy bills are increased by a number of Government environmental policies, including the Renewables Obligation and other levies applied to energy usage to fund low-carbon power generation. Energy companies also face charges for schemes including the European Union’s Emissions Trading Scheme, costs which are then passed on to customers. â€Å"Green† levies are meant to increase the price of carbon-emitting energy use, with the aim of funding alternative sources and encouraging consumers to change their behavior. Much of the money raised by such levies does not end up with the Treasury, but â€Å"green taxes† are regarded with suspicion by some consumers, who regard them as a disguised revenue-raising measure. Simon Less, Policy Exchange’s head of environment and energy, said that the various environmental charges should be considered taxes by another name. â€Å"The funding for these policies may come through energy bills, rather than the tax man, but it is a tax, and an increasingly large one paid by individual households and firms. Its scale makes it even more important that this money is used in the most efficient way possible.† Warning about need to gain public support for measures to combat climate change, his report says that â€Å"raising taxation through energy bills, rather than, say, using income tax, is relatively regressive, because the poorest households tend to spend a larger proportion of their income on energy.† Dr Less also said they funds that are supposed to go to renewable energy sources are often spent inefficiently. He said: â€Å"Climate change is a major threat. It needs to be tackled as a priority, and that will be expensive. But the public and industry will not put up with paying such large sums if the money is going to be wasted.† Last week, The Daily Telegraph highlighted the latest â€Å"green† charge to be applied to British businesses, the Carbon Reduction Commitment, which will require big companies to buy â€Å"permits† for their carbon emissions. Thousands of those companies are facing large fines if they fail to register with the new scheme before a deadline next month. The articles discusses that although ‘green taxes’ are applied to fund low-carbon power generation with the ultimate aim of encouraging consumers to tap alternative energy, they will increase the cost of household energy bills by à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½50 by 2020. Externalities are third party effects arising from production and consumption of goods and services for which no appropriate compensation is paid. Negative externalities occur when such production and/or consumption impose external costs on third parties outside of the market for which no appropriate compensation is paid. Households consuming carbon-emitting energy can be considered to be a negative externality as it affects the rest of society and even a nearby country which is outside the ‘consumption market’. Many a time, the government will impose a tax on those who create negative externalities attempting to correct market failure. The graph shows negative externality of consumption, where MPB (marginal private benefit) is much higher than MSB (marginal social benefit).The consumption of pollution-emitting energy can be represented by the demand curve MSC (marginal social cost) in the diagram. This curve shows the spillover costs on society with each additional unit of consumption. Consumption is at Q1 and not at the optimal, Q* indicating over consumption leading to welfare loss to society. In order to correct this, ‘green taxes’ are being introduced in an effort to bring consumption to the optimal. This would however result in the optimal price to shift from P* to P2, which is relatively higher. Carbon emissions refer to the release of Carbon dioxide gas into the atmosphere when fossil fuels like gas, oil, or coal are burnt. In a natural carbon cycle, carbon dioxide is re-absorbed by plants and trees but currently, the burning rate is faster than the absorption rate. Global warming is the direct negative consequence and the government has to invest in new research technologies to avert further crises. In UK, there are a number of governmental environmental policies, like the Renewables Obligation and other ‘green levies’ which are used to fund low-carbon emission energy. According to the article, ‘Green taxes’ would rise threefold, from à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½5.7 billion in 2010 to à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½16.3 billion in 2020. In the coming years, as world population rises, so will energy consumption, carbon emissions and its negative effects; these taxes will follow suit. In the short run, the tax increases might not be very large and hence would not cause a great decrease in quantity demanded. In the long run however, as the taxes rise to a sizeable amount, then the deterrent action will ensue; consumers will now be discouraged from consuming carbon based energy and shift to alternative sources. However, In reality this is only partially true. The tax will be most effective on households with lower income, as this tax will cover a larger percentage of their income. The tax will not be as effective on wealthy households since it would be just a negligible amount in their budget and they will not think twice before spending on goods that cause negative externalities. Another disadvantage of such a ‘taxation’ method is achieving the right level of taxation so that private cost will exactly equate with the social cost. The government cannot accurately put a monetary value on the private benefits and cost of firms; in fact, a certain financial figure on the value of externalities such as the cost to natural habitat, long-term effects of ozone layer depletion or even that of the human life for that matter, is rather hard to arrive at. All in all, all that the government and other environmental agencies can hope to achieve is the correct direction of movement towards the optimum level of output. A more effective step the government could take is to impose a complete ban on certain forms of energy consumption that produce large quantities of emissions or issue marketable pollution permits. The latter case of Carbon emissions’ trading has been gaining momentum in many countries now and is a central feature in Kyoto Protocol and the European Union Carbon Emissions Trading Scheme which started in full in 2005. This new approach involved the issuance of limited volume of pollution rights which are sold to companies that pollute. The incentive is that if the company pollutes less, then they can sell their excess permits in the secondary market. As the number of permits being issued is carefully reduced year by year, total carbon emission can be curbed efficiently and simultaneously the path towards greener energy alternatives can be also be paved.

Why Software Should Be Free

Why Software Should Be Free by Richard Stallman (Version of April 24, 1992) Introduction The existence of software inevitably raises the question of how decisions about its use should be made. For example, suppose one individual who has a copy of a program meets another who would like a copy. It is possible for them to copy the program; who should decide whether this is done? The individuals involved? Or another party, called the â€Å"owner†? Software developers typically consider these questions on the assumption that the criterion for the answer is to maximize developers' profits.The political power of business has led to the government adoption of both this criterion and the answer proposed by the developers: that the program has an owner, typically a corporation associated with its development. I would like to consider the same question using a different criterion: the prosperity and freedom of the public in general. This answer cannot be decided by current law–the law should conform to ethics, not the other way around. Nor does current practice decide this question, although it may suggest possible answers.The only way to judge is to see who is helped and who is hurt by recognizing owners of software, why, and how much. In other words, we should perform a cost-benefit analysis on behalf of society as a whole, taking account of individual freedom as well as production of material goods. In this essay, I will describe the effects of having owners, and show that the results are detrimental. My conclusion is that programmers have the duty to encourage others to share, redistribute, study, and improve the software we write: in other words, to write â€Å"free† software. 1) How Owners Justify Their Power Those who benefit from the current system where programs are property offer two arguments in support of their claims to own programs: the emotional argument and the economic argument. The emotional argument goes like this: â€Å"I put my s weat, my heart, my soul into this program. It comes from me, it's mine! † This argument does not require serious refutation. The feeling of attachment is one that programmers can cultivate when it suits them; it is not inevitable. Consider, for example, how willingly the same programmers sually sign over all rights to a large corporation for a salary; the emotional attachment mysteriously vanishes. By contrast, consider the great artists and artisans of medieval times, who didn't even sign their names to their work. To them, the name of the artist was not important. What mattered was that the work was done–and the purpose it would serve. This view prevailed for hundreds of years. The economic argument goes like this: â€Å"I want to get rich (usually described inaccurately as `making a living'), and if you don't allow me to get rich by programming, then I won't program.Everyone else is like me, so nobody will ever program. And then you'll be stuck with no programs at a ll! † This threat is usually veiled as friendly advice from the wise. I'll explain later why this threat is a bluff. First I want to address an implicit assumption that is more visible in another formulation of the argument. This formulation starts by comparing the social utility of a proprietary program with that of no program, and then concludes that proprietary software development is, on the whole, beneficial, and should be encouraged.The fallacy here is in comparing only two outcomes–proprietary software vs. no software–and assuming there are no other possibilities. Given a system of software copyright, software development is usually linked with the existence of an owner who controls the software's use. As long as this linkage exists, we are often faced with the choice of proprietary software or none. However, this linkage is not inherent or inevitable; it is a consequence of the specific social/legal policy decision that we are questioning: the decision to have owners.To formulate the choice as between proprietary software vs. no software is begging the question. The Argument against Having Owners The question at hand is, â€Å"Should development of software be linked with having owners to restrict the use of it? † In order to decide this, we have to judge the effect on society of each of those two activities independently: the effect of developing the software (regardless of its terms of distribution), and the effect of restricting its use (assuming the software has been developed).If one of these activities is helpful and the other is harmful, we would be better off dropping the linkage and doing only the helpful one. To put it another way, if restricting the distribution of a program already developed is harmful to society overall, then an ethical software developer will reject the option of doing so. To determine the effect of restricting sharing, we need to compare the value to society of a restricted (i. e. , proprietary ) program with that of the same program, available to everyone. This means comparing two possible worlds.This analysis also addresses the simple counterargument sometimes made that â€Å"the benefit to the neighbor of giving him or her a copy of a program is cancelled by the harm done to the owner. † This counterargument assumes that the harm and the benefit are equal in magnitude. The analysis involves comparing these magnitudes, and shows that the benefit is much greater. To elucidate this argument, let's apply it in another area: road construction. It would be possible to fund the construction of all roads with tolls.This would entail having toll booths at all street corners. Such a system would provide a great incentive to improve roads. It would also have the virtue of causing the users of any given road to pay for that road. However, a toll booth is an artificial obstruction to smooth driving-artificial, because it is not a consequence of how roads or cars work. Compari ng free roads and toll roads by their usefulness, we find that (all else being equal) roads without toll booths are cheaper to construct, cheaper to run, safer, and more efficient to use. 2) In a poor country, tolls may make the roads unavailable to many citizens. The roads without toll booths thus offer more benefit to society at less cost; they are preferable for society. Therefore, society should choose to fund roads in another way, not by means of toll booths. Use of roads, once built, should be free. When the advocates of toll booths propose them as merely a way of raising funds, they distort the choice that is available. Toll booths do raise funds, but they do something else as well: in effect, they degrade the road.The toll road is not as good as the free road; giving us more or technically superior roads may not be an improvement if this means substituting toll roads for free roads. Of course, the construction of a free road does cost money, which the public must somehow pay . However, this does not imply the inevitability of toll booths. We who must in either case pay will get more value for our money by buying a free road. I am not saying that a toll road is worse than no road at all. That would be true if the toll were so great that hardly anyone used the road–but this is an unlikely policy for a toll collector.However, as long as the toll booths cause significant waste and inconvenience, it is better to raise the funds in a less obstructive fashion. To apply the same argument to software development, I will now show that having â€Å"toll booths† for useful software programs costs society dearly: it makes the programs more expensive to construct, more expensive to distribute, and less satisfying and efficient to use. It will follow that program construction should be encouraged in some other way. Then I will go on to explain other methods of encouraging and (to the extent actually necessary) funding software development.The Harm Done b y Obstructing Software Consider for a moment that a program has been developed, and any necessary payments for its development have been made; now society must choose either to make it proprietary or allow free sharing and use. Assume that the existence of the program and its availability is a desirable thing. (3) Restrictions on the distribution and modification of the program cannot facilitate its use. They can only interfere. So the effect can only be negative. But how much? And what kind? Three different levels of material harm come from such obstruction: †¢ †¢ †¢ Fewer people use the program.None of the users can adapt or fix the program. Other developers cannot learn from the program, or base new work on it. Each level of material harm has a concomitant form of psychosocial harm. This refers to the effect that people's decisions have on their subsequent feelings, attitudes, and predispositions. These changes in people's ways of thinking will then have a further effect on their relationships with their fellow citizens, and can have material consequences. The three levels of material harm waste part of the value that the program could contribute, but they cannot reduce it to zero.If they waste nearly all the value of the program, then writing the program harms society by at most the effort that went into writing the program. Arguably a program that is profitable to sell must provide some net direct material benefit. However, taking account of the concomitant psychosocial harm, there is no limit to the harm that proprietary software development can do. Obstructing Use of Programs The first level of harm impedes the simple use of a program. A copy of a program has nearly zero marginal cost (and you can pay this cost by doing the work yourself), so in a free market, it would have nearly zero price.A license fee is a significant disincentive to use the program. If a widely-useful program is proprietary, far fewer people will use it. It is easy t o show that the total contribution of a program to society is reduced by assigning an owner to it. Each potential user of the program, faced with the need to pay to use it, may choose to pay, or may forego use of the program. When a user chooses to pay, this is a zero-sum transfer of wealth between two parties. But each time someone chooses to forego use of the program, this harms that person without benefitting anyone. The sum of negative numbers and zeros must be negative.But this does not reduce the amount of work it takes to develop the program. As a result, the efficiency of the whole process, in delivered user satisfaction per hour of work, is reduced. This reflects a crucial difference between copies of programs and cars, chairs, or sandwiches. There is no copying machine for material objects outside of science fiction. But programs are easy to copy; anyone can produce as many copies as are wanted, with very little effort. This isn't true for material objects because matter i s conserved: each new copy has to be built from raw materials in the same way that the first copy was built.With material objects, a disincentive to use them makes sense, because fewer objects bought means less raw material and work needed to make them. It's true that there is usually also a startup cost, a development cost, which is spread over the production run. But as long as the marginal cost of production is significant, adding a share of the development cost does not make a qualitative difference. And it does not require restrictions on the freedom of ordinary users. However, imposing a price on something that would otherwise be free is a qualitative change.A centrally-imposed fee for software distribution becomes a powerful disincentive. What's more, central production as now practiced is inefficient even as a means of delivering copies of software. This system involves enclosing physical disks or tapes in superfluous packaging, shipping large numbers of them around the worl d, and storing them for sale. This cost is presented as an expense of doing business; in truth, it is part of the waste caused by having owners. Damaging Social Cohesion Suppose that both you and your neighbor would find it useful to run a certain program.In ethical concern for your neighbor, you should feel that proper handling of the situation will enable both of you to use it. A proposal to permit only one of you to use the program, while restraining the other, is divisive; neither you nor your neighbor should find it acceptable. Signing a typical software license agreement means betraying your neighbor: â€Å"I promise to deprive my neighbor of this program so that I can have a copy for myself. † People who make such choices feel internal psychological pressure to justify them, by downgrading the importance of helping one's neighbors–thus public spirit suffers.This is psychosocial harm associated with the material harm of discouraging use of the program. Many users unconsciously recognize the wrong of refusing to share, so they decide to ignore the licenses and laws, and share programs anyway. But they often feel guilty about doing so. They know that they must break the laws in order to be good neighbors, but they still consider the laws authoritative, and they conclude that being a good neighbor (which they are) is naughty or shameful. That is also a kind of psychosocial harm, but one can escape it by deciding that these licenses and laws have no moral force.Programmers also suffer psychosocial harm knowing that many users will not be allowed to use their work. This leads to an attitude of cynicism or denial. A programmer may describe enthusiastically the work that he finds technically exciting; then when asked, â€Å"Will I be permitted to use it? †, his face falls, and he admits the answer is no. To avoid feeling discouraged, he either ignores this fact most of the time or adopts a cynical stance designed to minimize the importance of it. Since the age of Reagan, the greatest scarcity in the United States is not technical innovation, but rather the willingness to work together for the public good.It makes no sense to encourage the former at the expense of the latter. Obstructing Custom Adaptation of Programs The second level of material harm is the inability to adapt programs. The ease of modification of software is one of its great advantages over older technology. But most commercially available software isn't available for modification, even after you buy it. It's available for you to take it or leave it, as a black box–that is all. A program that you can run consists of a series of numbers whose meaning is obscure. No one, not even a good programmer, can easily change the numbers o make the program do something different. Programmers normally work with the â€Å"source code† for a program, which is written in a programming language such as Fortran or C. It uses names to designate the data bei ng used and the parts of the program, and it represents operations with symbols such as `+' for addition and `-‘ for subtraction. It is designed to help programmers read and change programs. Here is an example; a program to calculate the distance between two points in a plane: float distance (p0, p1) struct point p0, p1; { float xdist = p1. x – p0. x; float ydist = p1. y – p0. ; return sqrt (xdist * xdist + ydist * ydist); } Here is the same program in executable form, on the computer I normally use: 1314258944 1411907592 -234880989 1644167167 572518958 -232267772 -231844736 -234879837 -3214848 -803143692 -231844864 2159150 -234879966 1090581031 1314803317 1634862 1420296208 -232295424 1962942495 Source code is useful (at least potentially) to every user of a program. But most users are not allowed to have copies of the source code. Usually the source code for a proprietary program is kept secret by the owner, lest anybody else learn something from it.Users recei ve only the files of incomprehensible numbers that the computer will execute. This means that only the program's owner can change the program. A friend once told me of working as a programmer in a bank for about six months, writing a program similar to something that was commercially available. She believed that if she could have gotten source code for that commercially available program, it could easily have been adapted to their needs. The bank was willing to pay for this, but was not permitted to–the source code was a secret.So she had to do six months of make-work, work that counts in the GNP but was actually waste. The MIT Artificial Intelligence Lab (AI Lab) received a graphics printer as a gift from Xerox around 1977. It was run by free software to which we added many convenient features. For example, the software would notify a user immediately on completion of a print job. Whenever the printer had trouble, such as a paper jam or running out of paper, the software wou ld immediately notify all users who had print jobs queued. These features facilitated smooth operation.Later Xerox gave the AI Lab a newer, faster printer, one of the first laser printers. It was driven by proprietary software that ran in a separate dedicated computer, so we couldn't add any of our favorite features. We could arrange to send a notification when a print job was sent to the dedicated computer, but not when the job was actually printed (and the delay was usually considerable). There was no way to find out when the job was actually printed; you could only guess. And no one was informed when there was a paper jam, so the printer often went for an hour without being fixed.The system programmers at the AI Lab were capable of fixing such problems, probably as capable as the original authors of the program. Xerox was uninterested in fixing them, and chose to prevent us, so we were forced to accept the problems. They were never fixed. Most good programmers have experienced th is frustration. The bank could afford to solve the problem by writing a new program from scratch, but a typical user, no matter how skilled, can only give up. Giving up causes psychosocial harm–to the spirit of self-reliance. It is demoralizing to live in a house that you cannot rearrange to suit your needs.It leads to resignation and discouragement, which can spread to affect other aspects of one's life. People who feel this way are unhappy and do not do good work. Imagine what it would be like if recipes were hoarded in the same fashion as software. You might say, â€Å"How do I change this recipe to take out the salt? † and the great chef would respond, â€Å"How dare you insult my recipe, the child of my brain and my palate, by trying to tamper with it? You don't have the judgment to change my recipe and make it work right! † â€Å"But my doctor says I'm not supposed to eat salt! What can I do? Will you take out the salt for me? ‘ â€Å"I would be gl ad to do that; my fee is only $50,000. † Since the owner has a monopoly on changes, the fee tends to be large. â€Å"However, right now I don't have time. I am busy with a commission to design a new recipe for ship's biscuit for the Navy Department. I might get around to you in about two years. † Obstructing Software Development The third level of material harm affects software development. Software development used to be an evolutionary process, where a person would take an existing program and rewrite parts of it for one new feature, and then another person would rewrite parts to add nother feature; in some cases, this continued over a period of twenty years. Meanwhile, parts of the program would be â€Å"cannibalized† to form the beginnings of other programs. The existence of owners prevents this kind of evolution, making it necessary to start from scratch when developing a program. It also prevents new practitioners from studying existing programs to learn us eful techniques or even how large programs can be structured. Owners also obstruct education. I have met bright students in computer science who have never seen the source code of a large program.They may be good at writing small programs, but they can't begin to learn the different skills of writing large ones if they can't see how others have done it. In any intellectual field, one can reach greater heights by standing on the shoulders of others. But that is no longer generally allowed in the software field–you can only stand on the shoulders of the other people in your own company. The associated psychosocial harm affects the spirit of scientific cooperation, which used to be so strong that scientists would cooperate even when their countries were at war.In this spirit, Japanese oceanographers abandoning their lab on an island in the Pacific carefully preserved their work for the invading U. S. Marines, and left a note asking them to take good care of it. Conflict for prof it has destroyed what international conflict spared. Nowadays scientists in many fields don't publish enough in their papers to enable others to replicate the experiment. They publish only enough to let readers marvel at how much they were able to do. This is certainly true in computer science, where the source code for the programs reported on is usually secret.It Does Not Matter How Sharing Is Restricted I have been discussing the effects of preventing people from copying, changing, and building on a program. I have not specified how this obstruction is carried out, because that doesn't affect the conclusion. Whether it is done by copy protection, or copyright, or licenses, or encryption, or ROM cards, or hardware serial numbers, if it succeeds in preventing use, it does harm. Users do consider some of these methods more obnoxious than others. I suggest that the methods most hated are those that accomplish their objective.Software Should be Free I have shown how ownership of a pro gram–the power to restrict changing or copying it–is obstructive. Its negative effects are widespread and important. It follows that society shouldn't have owners for programs. Another way to understand this is that what society needs is free software, and proprietary software is a poor substitute. Encouraging the substitute is not a rational way to get what we need. Vaclav Havel has advised us to â€Å"Work for something because it is good, not just because it stands a chance to succeed. ‘ A business making proprietary software stands a chance of success in its own narrow terms, but it is not what is good for society. Why People Will Develop Software If we eliminate copyright as a means of encouraging people to develop software, at first less software will be developed, but that software will be more useful. It is not clear whether the overall delivered user satisfaction will be less; but if it is, or if we wish to increase it anyway, there are other ways to en courage development, just as there are ways besides toll booths to raise money for streets.Before I talk about how that can be done, first I want to question how much artificial encouragement is truly necessary. Programming is Fun There are some lines of work that few will enter except for money; road construction, for example. There are other fields of study and art in which there is little chance to become rich, which people enter for their fascination or their perceived value to society. Examples include mathematical logic, classical music, and archaeology; and political organizing among working people.People compete, more sadly than bitterly, for the few funded positions available, none of which is funded very well. They may even pay for the chance to work in the field, if they can afford to. Such a field can transform itself overnight if it begins to offer the possibility of getting rich. When one worker gets rich, others demand the same opportunity. Soon all may demand large s ums of money for doing what they used to do for pleasure. When another couple of years go by, everyone connected with the field will deride the idea that work would be done in the field without large financial returns.They will advise social planners to ensure that these returns are possible, prescribing special privileges, powers, and monopolies as necessary to do so. This change happened in the field of computer programming in the past decade. Fifteen years ago, there were articles on â€Å"computer addiction†: users were â€Å"onlining† and had hundred-dollar-a-week habits. It was generally understood that people frequently loved programming enough to break up their marriages. Today, it is generally understood that no one would program except for a high rate of pay.People have forgotten what they knew fifteen years ago. When it is true at a given time that most people will work in a certain field only for high pay, it need not remain true. The dynamic of change can run in reverse, if society provides an impetus. If we take away the possibility of great wealth, then after a while, when the people have readjusted their attitudes, they will once again be eager to work in the field for the joy of accomplishment. The question, â€Å"How can we pay programmers? † becomes an easier question when we realize that it's not a matter of paying them a fortune.A mere living is easier to raise. Funding Free Software Institutions that pay programmers do not have to be software houses. Many other institutions already exist that can do this. Hardware manufacturers find it essential to support software development even if they cannot control the use of the software. In 1970, much of their software was free because they did not consider restricting it. Today, their increasing willingness to join consortiums shows their realization that owning the software is not what is really important for them.Universities conduct many programming projects. Today they of ten sell the results, but in the 1970s they did not. Is there any doubt that universities would develop free software if they were not allowed to sell software? These projects could be supported by the same government contracts and grants that now support proprietary software development. It is common today for university researchers to get grants to develop a system, develop it nearly to the point of completion and call that â€Å"finished†, and then start companies where they really finish the project and make it usable.Sometimes they declare the unfinished version â€Å"free†; if they are thoroughly corrupt, they instead get an exclusive license from the university. This is not a secret; it is openly admitted by everyone concerned. Yet if the researchers were not exposed to the temptation to do these things, they would still do their research. Programmers writing free software can make their living by selling services related to the software. I have been hired to po rt the GNU C compiler to new hardware, and to make user-interface extensions to GNU Emacs. (I offer these improvements to the public once they are done. I also teach classes for which I am paid. I am not alone in working this way; there is now a successful, growing corporation which does no other kind of work. Several other companies also provide commercial support for the free software of the GNU system. This is the beginning of the independent software support industry–an industry that could become quite large if free software becomes prevalent. It provides users with an option generally unavailable for proprietary software, except to the very wealthy. New institutions such as the Free Software Foundation can also fund programmers.Most of the Foundation's funds come from users buying tapes through the mail. The software on the tapes is free, which means that every user has the freedom to copy it and change it, but many nonetheless pay to get copies. (Recall that â€Å"free software† refers to freedom, not to price. ) Some users who already have a copy order tapes as a way of making a contribution they feel we deserve. The Foundation also receives sizable donations from computer manufacturers. The Free Software Foundation is a charity, and its income is spent on hiring as many programmers as possible.If it had been set up as a business, distributing the same free software to the public for the same fee, it would now provide a very good living for its founder. Because the Foundation is a charity, programmers often work for the Foundation for half of what they could make elsewhere. They do this because we are free of bureaucracy, and because they feel satisfaction in knowing that their work will not be obstructed from use. Most of all, they do it because programming is fun. In addition, volunteers have written many useful programs for us. (Even technical writers have begun to volunteer. This confirms that programming is among the most fascinating of all fields, along with music and art. We don't have to fear that no one will want to program. What Do Users Owe to Developers? There is a good reason for users of software to feel a moral obligation to contribute to its support. Developers of free software are contributing to the users' activities, and it is both fair and in the long-term interest of the users to give them funds to continue. However, this does not apply to proprietary software developers, since obstructionism deserves a punishment rather than reward. We thus have a paradox: the developer of useful software is entitled to the support of the users, but any attempt to turn this moral obligation into a requirement destroys the basis for the obligation. A developer can either deserve a reward or demand it, but not both. I believe that an ethical developer faced with this paradox must act so as to deserve the reward, but should also entreat the users for voluntary donations. Eventually the users will learn to support d evelopers without coercion, just as they have learned to support public radio and television stations.What Is Software Productivity? If software were free, there would still be programmers, but perhaps fewer of them. Would this be bad for society? Not necessarily. Today the advanced nations have fewer farmers than in 1900, but we do not think this is bad for society, because the few deliver more food to the consumers than the many used to do. We call this improved productivity. Free software would require far fewer programmers to satisfy the demand, because of increased software productivity at all levels: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Wider use of each program that is developed.The ability to adapt existing programs for customization instead of starting from scratch. Better education of programmers. The elimination of duplicate development effort. Those who object to cooperation claiming it would result in the employment of fewer programmers are actually objecting to increased pr oductivity. Yet these people usually accept the widely-held belief that the software industry needs increased productivity. How is this? â€Å"Software productivity† can mean two different things: the overall productivity of all software development, or the productivity of individual projects.Overall productivity is what society would like to improve, and the most straightforward way to do this is to eliminate the artificial obstacles to cooperation which reduce it. But researchers who study the field of â€Å"software productivity† focus only on the second, limited, sense of the term, where improvement requires difficult technological advances. Is Competition Inevitable? Is it inevitable that people will try to compete, to surpass their rivals in society? Perhaps it is. But competition itself is not harmful; the harmful thing is combat. There are many ways to compete.Competition can consist of trying to achieve ever more, to outdo what others have done. For example, i n the old days, there was competition among programming wizards–competition for who could make the computer do the most amazing thing, or for who could make the shortest or fastest program for a given task. This kind of competition can benefit everyone, as long as the spirit of good sportsmanship is maintained. Constructive competition is enough competition to motivate people to great efforts. A number of people are competing to be the first to have visited all the countries on Earth; some even spend fortunes trying to do this.But they do not bribe ship captains to strand their rivals on desert islands. They are content to let the best person win. Competition becomes combat when the competitors begin trying to impede each other instead of advancing themselves–when â€Å"Let the best person win† gives way to â€Å"Let me win, best or not. † Proprietary software is harmful, not because it is a form of competition, but because it is a form of combat among th e citizens of our society. Competition in business is not necessarily combat. For example, when two grocery stores compete, their entire effort is to improve their own operations, not to sabotage the rival.But this does not demonstrate a special commitment to business ethics; rather, there is little scope for combat in this line of business short of physical violence. Not all areas of business share this characteristic. Withholding information that could help everyone advance is a form of combat. Business ideology does not prepare people to resist the temptation to combat the competition. Some forms of combat have been banned with anti-trust laws, truth in advertising laws, and so on, but rather than generalizing this to a principled rejection of combat in general, executives invent other forms of combat which are not specifically prohibited.Society's resources are squandered on the economic equivalent of factional civil war. â€Å"Why Don't You Move to Russia? † In the Unite d States, any advocate of other than the most extreme form of laissezfaire selfishness has often heard this accusation. For example, it is leveled against the supporters of a national health care system, such as is found in all the other industrialized nations of the free world. It is leveled against the advocates of public support for the arts, also universal in advanced nations. The idea that citizens have any obligation to the public good is identified in America with Communism.But how similar are these ideas? Communism as was practiced in the Soviet Union was a system of central control where all activity was regimented, supposedly for the common good, but actually for the sake of the members of the Communist party. And where copying equipment was closely guarded to prevent illegal copying. The American system of software copyright exercises central control over distribution of a program, and guards copying equipment with automatic copying-protection schemes to prevent illegal c opying.By contrast, I am working to build a system where people are free to decide their own actions; in particular, free to help their neighbors, and free to alter and improve the tools which they use in their daily lives. A system based on voluntary cooperation and on decentralization. Thus, if we are to judge views by their resemblance to Russian Communism, it is the software owners who are the Communists. The Question of Premises I make the assumption in this paper that a user of software is no less important than an author, or even an author's employer.In other words, their interests and needs have equal weight, when we decide which course of action is best. This premise is not universally accepted. Many maintain that an author's employer is fundamentally more important than anyone else. They say, for example, that the purpose of having owners of software is to give the author's employer the advantage he deserves–regardless of how this may affect the public. It is no use trying to prove or disprove these premises. Proof requires shared premises. So most of what I have to say is addressed only to those who share the premises I use, or at least are interested in what their consequences are.For those who believe that the owners are more important than everyone else, this paper is simply irrelevant. But why would a large number of Americans accept a premise that elevates certain people in importance above everyone else? Partly because of the belief that this premise is part of the legal traditions of American society. Some people feel that doubting the premise means challenging the basis of society. It is important for these people to know that this premise is not part of our legal tradition. It never has been. Thus, the Constitution says that the purpose of copyright is to â€Å"promote the progress of science and the useful arts. ‘ The Supreme Court has elaborated on this, stating in `Fox Film vs. Doyal' that â€Å"The sole interest of the Un ited States and the primary object in conferring the [copyright] monopoly lie in the general benefits derived by the public from the labors of authors. † We are not required to agree with the Constitution or the Supreme Court. (At one time, they both condoned slavery. ) So their positions do not disprove the owner supremacy premise. But I hope that the awareness that this is a radical right-wing assumption rather than a traditionally recognized one will weaken its appeal.Conclusion We like to think that our society encourages helping your neighbor; but each time we reward someone for obstructionism, or admire them for the wealth they have gained in this way, we are sending the opposite message. Software hoarding is one form of our general willingness to disregard the welfare of society for personal gain. We can trace this disregard from Ronald Reagan to Jim Bakker, from Ivan Boesky to Exxon, from failing banks to failing schools. We can measure it with the size of the homeless population and the prison population.The antisocial spirit feeds on itself, because the more we see that other people will not help us, the more it seems futile to help them. Thus society decays into a jungle. If we don't want to live in a jungle, we must change our attitudes. We must start sending the message that a good citizen is one who cooperates when appropriate, not one who is successful at taking from others. I hope that the free software movement will contribute to this: at least in one area, we will replace the jungle with a more efficient system which encourages and runs on voluntary cooperation. Footnotes 1.The word â€Å"free† in â€Å"free software† refers to freedom, not to price; the price paid for a copy of a free program may be zero, or small, or (rarely) quite large. 2. The issues of pollution and traffic congestion do not alter this conclusion. If we wish to make driving more expensive to discourage driving in general, it is disadvantageous to do t his using toll booths, which contribute to both pollution and congestion. A tax on gasoline is much better. Likewise, a desire to enhance safety by limiting maximum speed is not relevant; a free-access road enhances the average speed by avoiding stops and delays, for any given speed limit. . One might regard a particular computer program as a harmful thing that should not be available at all, like the Lotus Marketplace database of personal information, which was withdrawn from sale due to public disapproval. Most of what I say does not apply to this case, but it makes little sense to argue for having an owner on the grounds that the owner will make the program less available. The owner will not make it completely unavailable, as one would wish in the case of a program whose use is considered destructive.

CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE - Essay Example The pilot group will usually undergo the clinical trial, while the control group is barely affected. By using the confidence interval function, the researcher will possibly avoid erroneous conclusions that the pilot and control group have the same result in case non-significant results are reported. Furthermore, the pilot study in this case measured the Critical Reading of Research Journals Plus teachings with nurses in intensive care units. The purpose for the study was to determine whether the experience of improved education, from published research, would improve nurses’ research self-efficiency. Swenson-Britt and Reineck (2009) show that, the statistical significance from the pilot study by conducting a paired t-test, there is an increase on three out of the four subscales in research self-efficiency. However, the clinical significance from this study reveals that using a course may or may not improve research self-efficacy of nurses under practice (Swenson-Britt & Reineck, 2009, p. 460-461). While including a mentor would most probably improve the result, the clinical significance conclusion seems weaker. In conclusion, researcher may rely on one of the two contrasting approaches to decision making-the clinical significance or statistical significance. The former seems to hinge on the researcher’s judgmental interpretation and accuracy, while the latter seems to be robust in my opinion. This is because statistical significance over a long time has proved to be uncorrelated to research findings and has exhibited greater accuracy in its approach. Swenson-Britt, E., & Reineck, C. (January 01, 2009). Research education for clinical nurses: a pilot study to determine research self-efficacy in critical care nurses. Journal of Continuing Education in Nursing, 40, 10,

Cross cultural management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Cross cultural management - Essay Example Limited cultural training barred most interactions. Though, participating parties rated this handy experiment as a major embodiment of their education. Introduction Virtual teams are turning into a standard element of worldwide business affiliations. The globalization of affiliations and technological advancements ensue into driving this virtual team notion that may continue to augment and develop into the predictable future. Virtual groups vary from face groups. One key difference is that they are thoroughly geographically placed, a fact that forces individuals to aim at overcoming time, affiliation boundaries and time (Ahuja, Galletta, and Carley, 2003). Moreover, communication is continually identified as the key to fruitful virtual teams. Therefore, communication and its several elements are a prime focus of this study. Virtual workgroups can typically be acknowledged by their traits. Virtual teams are a functional team that is inter-reliant in work management, having displayed e quality in responsibility for upshots and universally managing relations across affiliation boundaries. ... Additionally, virtual teams provide the opportunity to form culturally, assorted solutions; enhances creativity and a strong sense of unity among the involved team players. This can also encourage a firm acceptance of new notions, offering a competitive merit for international affiliations. Other merits are cost savings related to lodging and travel, time separation which makes the project to be active and access to most of the influential people in the affiliation joining deliberations at a pantry cost (Furnham, 2000). The demerits of virtual teams are that they often lean to utilise a more time-consuming deliberation process. When misunderstandings and poor communication occur, conflicts may arise among working teams. The time and geographical distance zones between team members may make a resolution of these constraints harder (Zakaria, Amelinckx and Wilemon, 2004). Cultural constraints of notably diverse nations may aggravate the drawbacks. Communication and trust One of the most pertinent keys to affluence with regard to communication is complete trust among teams and their members. Team associates ought to feel liberated to assert their viewpoints with no fear of critics. This constraint can be more complicated if team affiliates have hardly met each other or know pantry regarding their workmates (Warkentin et al, 2002). The swift trust phenomenon postulates that team players import anticipations of trust from common settings. In virtual teams, there is overtly meagre time to reserve and develop any mode of individual relationships. Workforces are constantly selected for virtual teams based on a sundry knowhow set, with pantry or no considerable attention given to a past record of working closely together (Oertig,

Justice, Ethics and Law - critical evaluation of one of the three Essay

Justice, Ethics and Law - critical evaluation of one of the three topics below - Essay Example They insist that the idea of all people possessing certain rights by virtue of their humanity, even in the absence of legislation, is baseless and only loose talk.2 The ambiguity regarding the credibility of human rights dates back to the 18th century shortly after US Declaration of Independence in 1776, and thirteen years ahead, the French declaration of ‘the rights of man’. The US Declaration stated that every man is ‘endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights’ while the French Declaration asserted ‘men are born and remain free and equal in rights’. Not long afterwards, Jeremy Bentham, in his writings between 1791 and 1792,3 differed with the concept of human rights and called for its dismissal. Bentham claimed that the idea of human rights was borrowed from the Americans and was not practical. Even today, there is still widespread disagreement on issues relating to human rights. Most critics maintain that human rights lack coherence, cogency and legitimacy while some still point out grey areas such as social and economic rights.4 Amartya Sen5 proposes several guidelines for the elements of a human rights theory that adequately address the issue of legitimacy of human rights. I will consider these six guidelines as conclusions to arguments which he bases on one or more premises explained under each subheading. The paper will analyse each of these conclusions and their supporting premises and critically assess their legitimacy and any alternative suggestions. Sen claims that human rights are primarily ethical demands rather than legal commands.6 He makes this conclusion based on two premises. First, even though human rights have often resulted in legislation, it is considered a further fact, as opposed to a characteristic of human rights. Second, Sen states that human rights are agreements on certain ethical affirmations and the

Microstructure and Mechanical Properties Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Microstructure and Mechanical Properties - Essay Example In this process, a sapphire laser system is used to trap samples of the metallic material. The laser is set up to be able to emit a continuous wave at the infrared radiation on the spectrum at a wavelength of about 760nm. The back focal plane of the of the condenser is imaged on a quadrant photodiode for the measurement of position detection. The metal samples are placed on the stage of translation and to achieve this, two methods are used. Transmission can either be done from above using the light emitting diode (LED) or reflection from below using mercury. The fluctuation of the quadrant diode voltage and the traces of time are acquired through three channels including two radial dimensions and a single sum voltage trace used on all the diodes. The advantages of this process are that the Boltzmann’s distribution can be used to measure the radial dimension of the sample. It is also possible to measure the spectral density and the corner frequency of the sample. Spark plasma sintering method: This is a recently developed process. It is also referred to as the pulsed electric current sintering method. This method employs a DC current in pulses and this power is passed through an electrically conducting pressure die and finally through the ceramic sample under investigation. The die usually acts as the source of heat and the ceramic sample is then heated on both its outer surface and the inner surface. The ceramics that are nano crystalline in nature and have size 10-50nm are prepared through co-precipitation. For a pressure less sintering process, the composite ceramic is normally isostatically pressed into a cylindrical green compact at a pressure of 400 Mpa. All the samples are then cleaned using a sand paper in order to remove the outer layer that is contaminated with a layer of carbon. An x-ray diffraction is then conducted to determine the phase analysis

Statistics for managers individual work wk9 Coursework

Statistics for managers individual work wk9 - Coursework Example The high prices houses are said to be determined by the number of bedrooms, the age of the house, and the number of the bathrooms and their quality. The closeness to the cosmopolitan cities and the shabby (Byers et al 1997). The average selling prices of the houses in USA is also determined by other factor like the prestige associated by the locality of the house. A survey conducted on the Public opinion polls measure not only acceptance of the selling prices of the houses in USA by the citizens, but also public opinion on a wide range of social and economic issues that attribute to the prices of the houses. Public opinion is a critical force in shaping and transforming society most on the matter that influence and affect the public in general. Through opinion research, the public, the media and other interested groups have access to accurate measures of public attitudes and intentions on the issue of the selling prices of the houses. Sociologists can follow shifts of opinion on the major social problems and chart the evolution of the values. And citizens can now make themselves be heard at all times and compare their own view with those of others (Byers et al 1997). There seems to be two groups of academic researchers, in which one continues to support the high selling prices of the houses in USA and its positive impact to the economy, they believe that the main purposes of investment in real estate business is to improve real economic value. It is also agreed that housing leads to improvement in productivity, innovation, and job creation in every field of economy (Kraemer and Dedrick 1996; Agarwal, 1997; Shin 1999; Gray et al, 2000; Lee & Bose 2002; Laudon and Laudon, 2011; and Gecti and Dastan, 2013). The other group criticizes the bad impact of high selling prices of the houses on ecomony and the fact that high selling prices lead to development of low house quality leading to

Term paper. book; churchill, Hitler, and the Unnecessary War Paper

. book; churchill, Hitler, and the Unnecessary War - Term Paper Example In his book the Gathering Storm, Sir Winston Churchill draws on the various failures of the Allies in the aftermath of the First World War that allowed events to lead to the Second World War. Sir Winston lays the blame of these failures at the doors of the United States of America, by its refusal to take an active role in the League of Nations, which prevented the allies being more forceful in resisting Hitler and his expansion plans prior to the start of the Second World War. Churchill, Hitler, and the Unnecessary War is Pat Buchanan’s riposte to this charge of Sir Winston Churchill. Pat Buchanan argues that the real culprit is Britain and Sir Winston Churchill, and their blunders that led to the Second World War. He buttresses this argument citing examples that start with the British decision to go to war with Germany in the event of an attack on France by Germany in 1906; abetting the Treaty of Versailles, whose terms were so denigrating to the Germans that it became possible for Hitler to rise to power; Winston Churchill’s role in the acceptance of American pressure to isolate Japan, leading to her entry into the war; sanctions against Italy in 1935 that led to Italy becoming a partner of Germany; the unasked for war guarantee to Poland in the case of an attack by Germany; and the blindness of Sir Winston Churchill to the actual ambitions of Stalin and Russia.

Canon Business Analysis Essay Example for Free

Canon Business Analysis Essay In 1925, a German camera maker named Oskar Barnack, developed a new, ground-breaking camera called the Leica. It was not until 1933 that a company responded to the success of Barnack’s creation and produced their own 35 millimeter version of his innovative design. Thus was born the Canon Company. By the 1950’s, Canon attained the title of leading producer of cameras in Japan. Since that time, Canon has made it a point to expand and diversify their company as much as possible. They are able to accomplish this primarily through a strong Research and Development program. Through this program, Canon has explored many different technologies such as home electronics and x-ray technology. One of the first product areas they explored was in the electronic calculator segment. Due to the complex nature of the technology, Canon’s engineers were forced to adapt and develop the intricate micro-electric processors that were being used. They were very successful in doing this. In late 1964, one year after their research started, Canon engineers presented top management with the finished product, the Canola 130. This product became the world’s first 10-key numeric pad calculator. However, Canon has not always succeeded in their endeavors. With every triumph comes a failure. One such instance was a printing device that utilized magnetic material that would coat the paper. They called this the Synchroreader. Although it was touted for its use of technology, the application, it was not patented. Another company took the design, improved it, and made it more affordable. Canon learned its lesson after that instance. Body In 1961, a new technology was developed by the Xerox Corporation. In the following years, with the success of their model 914 office copier, Xerox would enjoy a reported ninety three percent market share world wide. Xerox also had the advantage in that they held approximately five hundred patents. This tactic prevented other companies from intruding on their Plain Paper Copier (PPC) technology. Canon entered the market late in the 1960’s and was looked at with a skeptical eye. They were the â€Å"camera company from Japan† (Mintzberg, et al 2003, p. 75) and were not looked at as serious contenders in the photocopy market. Due to the PPC market being cornered by Xerox and their numerous patents, Canon instead moved into the Coated Paper Copying (CPC) market. This technology transfers the reflection of the original image directly to the special zinc oxide coated paper. This is in direct contrast from the PPC technology which uses regular paper and indirectly transfers the image using a rotating drum and charged particles. A similar technology is still being used in fax and photocopiers today. In 1962, while still in the inferior Coated Paper Copying and marketing under a separate name, the Top Management of Canon challenged their engineers to create a PPC process that would not infringe upon the patents held by Xerox. The engineers answered with the â€Å"New Process† in 1968 and became the first copier to carry the Canon name. Two years later the research came to fruition when the NP1100 was released in Japan. This model utilized dry toner and copied at a whopping rate of ten pages per minute. This, of course, is slow by today’s standards. Canon had finally broken into the PPC market. Riding on the success of this new technology, Canon released the NPL7 in 1972, marketing it exclusively to Japanese companies. This model contained several noticeable improvements over the first generation NP1100. Most notably is that the model was â€Å"More economical, more compact, more reliable,† while still keeping the same quality of copy. (Mintzberg, et al 2003, p. 77) Canon’s Top Management began looking for alternative markets for the Plain Paper Copier in the latter half of the 1970’s. The small office market was identified as Canon’s next target market. They devised a plan to accommodate this market by producing a photocopier, using PPC technology, and offering it to small businesses that did not require the large volume, high speed machines that were currently being offered on the market. The concept itself had the potential to change the market by decentralizing the office photocopier. Prior to this innovation, the photocopier in large offices were centralized to one corner of the office, primarily due to its mammoth size. In 1979, Canon’s concept became a resounding reality. They were able to produce a photocopier that not only met and exceeded the cost and reliability targets that were set by Top Management, but in a more practical application, it was able to reduce the need for constant and continual copier maintenance. Based upon previous experience with patent law, Canon employed the use those laws to protect their new found development. Through the years, Canon has demonstrated several core competencies that have enabled them to propel themselves to the top of the market. First and foremost, Canon has employed a pool of extremely talented engineers who made up Canon’s Research and Development team. Through their research, Canon was able to uncover new and innovative products. This varied product line, which included cameras, calculators, and photocopiers, demonstrates Canon’s diversified product line. This diverse line of merchandise is integral to the company’s survival and has enabled Canon to take a multifaceted approach to technological competition. The more diverse type of products that are offered, the more chances there are for success. This has not always worked out in Canon’s favor however. An example of this would be in the development of the synchroreader. Although the technology was much more advanced than what was on the market, poor marketing decisions and an ignorance of United States patent laws cost Canon that share of the market. Since that time, Canon has taken a step by step approach to their marketing strategies. This is especially apparent with the development and marketing of the NP110 copier. They began by distributing the unit in Japan only in a direct sales format. In doing so a company opens themselves up to the threat of collapse due to spreading themselves too thin. Secondly, we can surmise that an isolated marketing strategy, such as the one that Canon employed when marketing their copier to local Japanese dealers first, will be more effective in the long run. By distributing the product locally at first you can focus on close to home customers rather than across seas customers. Finally, a truly cost effective manufacturing process can be more beneficial at times than the products that come off the assembly lines themselves.

Development of Electronic Media in the Mauritius

Development of Electronic Media in the Mauritius CHAPTER 1 Introduction 1.0 Chapter Overview This opening chapter introduces the study by examining the background and historical perspective of the development of the Electronic media use worldwide and in Mauritius. The emergence of the phenomenon of electronic media addiction is introduced, and then brought into focus as it is beginning to affect electronic media users around the world, including Mauritius. Next, the aims and objectives of study and the research questions are identified. The chapter concludes with the research questions and the scope of the study. 1.1 Background of the study According to Huesmann (2007) electronic media has become a common fashion today, especially among college students. One of the most remarkable changes in our society in the 20th century and 21st centuries has been the saturation of our culture and day-to-day lives by the electronic media. In this new generation radio, television, movies, videos games, video, cell phones, and computer networks have took on principal roles in our children’s daily lives. Electronic media improve the general knowledge by giving us with information all around the world. News transmit through different electronic media make it easier for us know about the day-to-day events in the world. News, tele ­films and documentaries revolving around social issues improve a social perception in teenagers and increase their concern towards societal environment. Electronic media also contribute to the enhancement of our language, knowledge and vocabulary. It is now a general truth that T.V and other means of electronic media is a strong source of not only giving information but also teach and satisfy the masses. Jennifer (2008) and Azeez et al. (2014) have found that research has proven that television has had either positive or negative impacts. Electronic media can be described as those communication which is based on technology or electromechanical means of production and most often differentiated from print media Berkowitz and Rawlings (1963), Azeez et al (2014). The main electronic sources used by public normally comprise television, radio, sound recordings, video recordings and internet. It can be found that there are four basic functions of electronic media which generally include to inform, satisfy, teach and most important to influence public opinion (students). They also stated that the 20th century is heavily influenced by communication technology. Motion pictures arrived on scene in the first decade of this century. The radio broadcast began in 1920s while TV entered in the world in 1940s, followed by cable television in 1950s, and satellite television in 1970s. Lastly the personal computer gave access to internet in 1980s. It transformed the interconnected computer networks through World Wide Web by 1990s. Many benefits are connected with electronic media use, such access to needed information, international access to news and events, and interpersonal communication through email. But, along with the phenomenal expansion of the electronic media, there has been increasing concern internationally about the dangers related with electronic media over-use and becoming addicted to it (Buchholz, 2009; Daily News, 2008, 2009; Fackler, 2008; Janta, 2008; Khaosod, 2007; The Associated Press, 2009; Wanajak, 2011). A possible risk of using these new forms of media technology is also beginning to appear. Majority students are becoming too addicted to it and is having an impact on their academic performance, cyberbullying, sexting, becoming aggressive, becoming victims of aggression, insufficient sleep and poor sleep quality among students, and health problem such as affecting overall diet quality. Specially, increasing numbers of adolescents are becoming victims of aggression committed by peers wit h this new technology as cited in David-Ferdon and Hertz (2007). Examples comprise adolescents creating Web sites or sending e-mail or text messages that are meant to humiliate or harass a peer and/or to threaten physical harm called cyberbullying. Cyberbullying can be defined as bullying that occurs using electronic technology which contains devices and items such as mobile phones, computers, and tablets as well as communication instruments containing social media sites, text messages, chat, and websites. Examples of cyberbullying contain emails or mean text messages, rumors sent by email or posted on social networking sites, and humiliating pictures, clips, internet sites, or imposter accounts. Moreover, according Mr Ismael Bawamea an â€Å"enqueteur du bureau† at the Ombudsperson for Children Office in Mauritius, these offenders usually use SMS, e-mail, chat rooms and Facebook and social networking sites to spread their message. â€Å"Parents think they are observing thei r children effectively online, but according to an ICSF study, which is carried out in Mauritius, it has been found that less than 10% of parents monitored the websites,† says Mr Ismael Bawamea. â€Å"Without the necessary measure to ensure child protection online, children in Mauritius face massive dangers†, he indicated (Defi News, 2011). Researcher has collected over the past half century that exposure to violence on television, movies, and, most recently, in video games grows the risk of deviant behavior. According to the researchers, American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP); a latest study demonstrates that the average 8-10 year old child spends approximately eight hours a day using different forms of electronic technologies, and older children and teens spend more than 11 hours per day. Children and teenagers who have a Television in their bedroom spend more time with electronic media. Corresponding, the current amount of users for mobile phones, text messaging, e-mai l, and chat rooms by our teenagers have opened new venues for social interaction in which aggression can happen and adolescents can be victimized (Huesmann, 2007). Hence, Mauritian students are also facing many of the phenomenal problems due to electronic media. With the coming technology, everyone have a laptop and a Smartphone and with the everyday life, both parents work nowadays and adolescent do not have enough time to speak with their parents. After school, the teenagers go to their rooms, and start surfing, watching television for long hours or even listening to music through their mobiles, on their laptops, on radio. Moreover, they even eat in their rooms and keep sitting in front of their screen. The weird thing is that, they will prefer to talk to a stranger through social media rather than going out and talk with their friends. According to recent ICT indicators for Mauritius, a speedily increasing number of families and teenagers are using the Internet; the number of Internet subscribers at the end of 2010 was 284,200 and the number of mobile cellular subscribers was 1,190,900 in 2010 (Defi News, 2011). Henceforward, as stated in Al exa’s Statistics, Facebook can be seen as the number one site visited by Mauritian citizens as shown in the table below. Indeed, there were 159,480 Mauritians on Facebook as at 13th January 2010 as reported by the advertisement programme available on the network. Social Networking Site OR Social Networking Service (SNS) Ranking Facebook 1st YouTube 5th Tagged 24th Twitter 39th Badoo 42nd Hi5 51st Photobucket 54th Flickr 64th LinkedIn 68th MySpace 85th Table 1: Alexa’s Ranking of SNS visited by Mauritians in top 100 sites1 1.2 Problem statements A conversion in telecommunications has greatly changed communication by providing new media in order to have access to long distance communication in the last years. The first transatlantic two-way radio broadcast took place in 1906 and led the way to usual transmission via analogue and digital media. The new communication media now permit for long distance exchanges between higher numbers of populations. Electronic media is appreciating a wide use every day with a rise in technology devices being created. Technology has become a time wasting act that distracts youth from communicating personally with mates and family through face to face communication. Electronic media now comes in the forms laptops, tablets, desktops, mobile phones (containing new applications such as WhatsApp, Viber, Facebook Messenger, WeChat and many more), mp3/mp4 players, video games, movies, radios, and television. Electronic has displayed to record highs within the last era, thus altering the dynamic of comm unication. Electronic media, as it is known in different globe, has altered with time. Teenagers and technology appear to have a good relationship for each other. Both are young, proceeding rapidly, and ever altering. During the last 20 years there has been a sudden increase in new technology (David-Ferdon and Hertz, 2011). In the older generations teens readily accepted new technologies for example TVs, record and cassette players, computers, and VCRs, but the new generations have observed a virtual rapid increase in new technology, including mobile phones, iPads, iPods, Mp3/mp4 players, and personal digital assistants. This new technology has been eagerly accepted by adolescents and has caused to an expanded vocabulary, which contain instant messaging (â€Å"IMing†), blogging, and text messaging. Modern technology has many social and educational benefits. In an article (Anon 2010) was stated that with the emergence of internet as the global media, education has progressed to a large extent. Nowadays it is found that distance education programs are carried out through online media which has proved to be quite an advantage to people who seldom have the chance to have interactive classes. There are many television programs that impart knowledge on different facets of education comprising language, science, mathematics and so forth. Electronic media has facilitated in encouraging students to deal effectively with the present educational system. It has changed their view towards education. With the introduction of electronic media, education has got a new meaning. Problems arise when certain students do not use electronic media in a certain way that will have a positive effect on them, thus they become addicted to it. It is noticed that students give more attention to electronic media than they do to their studies (Ndaku, 2013). Teenagers try to follow new fashions, culture and style which is being presented in different programs and advertisements on television, on radio, through their smartphones, laptops, tablets, internet or posters on social networking sites. Teachers have showed concern about the risks students can be exposed to through these electronic devices. To respond to this concern, some countries and schools have, for example established new strategies about the use of mobile phones on school grounds and created strategies to block the use of certain websites on school computers. For example, in Florida, South Carolina, Utah, and Oregon are developing new strategies to cope with cyberbullying. Teachers have decided to take action individually by randomly inspecting websites used by teenagers, such as MySpace. This small activity emphasizes on the phenomena of electronic aggression: any type of aggression which carried out through technology, any sort of harassment or bullying (lying, making fun of people, making rude or mean comments, gossips, or making threatening or hostile comments) that happens through email, a chat room, instant messaging, a website, or even text messaging. Teachers, custodians, and other people who work wit h youngsters know that children and adolescents spend most of their time on electronic media such as blogs, instant messaging, chat rooms, email, text messaging rather that studying. What is not known is exactly how and how frequent they use different kinds of electronic? Could the use of electronic technology expand the likelihood that a teen is the victim of an attack? (David-Ferdon 2010). Electronic media is having a negative impact on the academic performance of students, cyberbullying, becoming aggressive, becoming victims of aggression, insufficient sleep and poor sleep quality among students, and health problem such as affecting overall diet quality. For example, too much addicted to violent video games or listening and watching too much of metallic, hard rock and rock music are affecting the brain and pushing the students in violent behavior. Attention is growing about the danger of teenagers to become victims of aggression carried out by peers with electronic media (David-Ferdon et al, 2007). Cyber-bullying is a global phenomenon which can include people from different countries. It can be defined as simple as continuing to leave a text through means of technology to someone who does not want further contact with the sender. Moreover, cyber-bullying happens when adolescents are tortured, bullied, harassed, humiliated, or in a different way which is targeted by a nother adolescent using the Internet, interactive and electronic means or mobile phones (Defi news, 2011). During recent decades, research examined the sleep patterns and habits of adolescents has become growingly more widespread. More precisely, lack of sleep and poor quality have been associated with impairments in declarative, procedural and working memory performance, as well as poor concentration on studies leading into poor academic performance at schools (Cain and Gradisar, 2010). Therefore, to conclude, that is the reason why I am conducting this research study. This research study aims at demonstrating the impact of electronic media on the secondary school students. 1.3 Aims and Objectives of study They are: To analyse the impact of electronic media on students’ social life. To find out how often the students use electronic media. To evaluate the attitude of students towards electronic media and measure the spending time on it. To determine how the use of electronic media has affected the academic performance of students. 1.4 Research Questions What are the impact of electronic media on students’ social life? How often do the students use electronic media? How are the attitude of students towards electronic media and the time spending on it? How has the use of electronic media affected the academic performance of the students? 1.5 Scope of study The essence of this research is to primarily study the impact of electronic media on secondary school students. The research intends to focus on students in Mauritius for easy analysis of data. 1.6 Flow of report Following this introduction are the chapters that address the relevant literature used to develop the theme the impact of electronic media on secondary school students, the research methods used in the work, the results data analysis, discussion, the conclusion and recommendation. Each chapter is briefly introduced below. Literature Review In chapter 2, the literature is reviewed in different areas. First, the impact of electronic media around the world. Research Methods (Methodology) In chapter 3, the methodology and research design are explained. The research sample and date collection methods are described. Results data analysis In chapter 4, the results and data analysis are explained according to the data collected, from the questionnaire survey. Results are compared. Discussion In chapter 5, the discussion will be made from the results obtained. Conclusions and Recommendations Chapter 6, concludes the research work and incorporates the recommendations In the next chapter we shall proceed with a review of the literature.